Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Essay Example

Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Paper Genetic counselling is a counselling process that deals with disorders within the family. This process involves a counsellor who helps the family or the person in the following ways: (a) discusses medical facts and informs about the diagnosis and the cause of the disorder and the cure; (b) informs the way heredity can cause disorders and the individuals in the family that possess risk; (c) helps to understand the cure but keeps in mind awareness of the comeback of the disease; (d) chooses the cure which they find appropriate, keeping in mind the risk and the family goals and acts accordingly to the decision; and (e) tries to make the best arrangements for the necessary adjustments within the family due to the disorder and/or to the risk of the reappearance of that disorder (Fraser, 1974). 1. Genetic Counselling Origin, Nature, and Goals Genetic counselling was established in 1947 and its main purpose was to explain the relationship between clinical geneticists and others who provide relevant information about etiology, history of nature, and occurrences of hereditary disorder risks. Its main aim was to promote a viable trend towards the various goals and values of those counselled and to dispel the association with eugenics that is relative to past practices of genetic counselling. The addition of nondirective approach in genetic counselling by the Rogerian psychology, has set it as standard in 1974. This standard remained consistent over time with the objective of early purveyors of genetic information with those scientists who were used to give information without providing advice (Mahowald, 1998). 2. Genetics Counselling Programme: Its Importance 2. 1 Reproductive decision-making: Some studies have defined effectiveness as having an impact on reproductive decision-making, leading to a potential reduction in affected births (Pilnick, 2001). Hildes at al. for example, reported a pilot neonatal screening programme for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), offering prenatal diagnosis for future pregnancies in women who are at risk. However, prenatal diagnosis was only actually carried out in two out of seven subsequent pregnancies. We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The authors conclude that such programmes â€Å"may not be an effective way of decreasing the number of repeat cases of DMD within families† (Hildes, 1993). Another study of clients who reported reactions to genetic counselling, found that almost half (43. 5%) of 628 clients completing questionnaires six months after their counselling session, reported that their reproductive plans had been influenced. However, the change and stability of reproductive plan patterns of both groups -self-described influenced and not influenced were similar. Such an approach is always likely to be contentious because of its thinly veiled eugenicism (Wertz, 1986). This has led to a search for other possible outcome measures. 2. 2 Information recall: Swerts for instance looked at the shadow induced by both genetics counselling and neural tube defects (NTD) and prenatal diagnosis for Down’s syndrome (DS), and also practised a simple information-delivery model, evaluating effectiveness by measuring recipients’ recall rather than their subsequent reproductive decisions (Swerts, 1992). Measurements of knowledge acquired or information recalled after counselling are frequent proxies for effectiveness, reflecting the common attempt to avoid the stigma of eugenics by presenting counselling as an educational intervention to enhance recipients’ autonomy. A number of studies have compared ‘before’ and ‘after’ knowledge of genetic factors amongst various client groups (Pilnick, 2001). 2. 3 Anxiety reduction: Anxiety has the potential to increase among genetic tested subjects. Mennie et al. found that, compared with controls who were identified as non-carriers, Cystic Fibrosis carriers and their partners showed a significant increase in generalized psychological disturbance over a four-day period, while awaiting the partners’ test results. This was attributed to anxiety and depression. After the results had been released, both parties returned to their control levels. Watson et al. also examined anxiety in those being screened to ascertain their CF carrier status. The authors report that counselling had mostly allayed this when couples were interviewed six months after the initial test. However, since the screening was simply to determine (asymptomatic) carrier status, which is not essentially problematic in reproductive terms, this seems likely to have had an impact on expressed anxiety. Other researchers noticed no anxiety among a general population cohort screened for CF carrier status (Livingstone, 1994). A study of the psychological outcome of amniotic fluid in three risk groups (older mothers, mothers who had a previous child with DS, and mothers who had a previous child with NTD) found anxiety levels in relation to the test both differed between the groups and showed considerable variation within each (Everskiebooms, 1988). Different screening or testing programmes clearly have different implications for the participants, and there are no easy comparisons to be made or conclusions drawn. Although most literature in this area relates to genetic testing, some studies do focus directly on counselling. One report examined the impact of different counselling formats on mood. A psychological scale administered before and after counselling assessed mood change. The authors concluded that the use of different formats made no significant differences to mood, although there is no discussion of what the changes actually were (Fisher, 1981). Cull et al. carried out a similar assessment of differing counselling formats using the Spielberger state-trait anxiety inventory, and also found no significant differences between groups. Another study examined both clients’ expectations of counselling and its psychological impact, again using the Spielberger inventory (Michie, 1997). There was reduced adverse psychological impact when patient expectations were met in the counselling session. All these studies, however, are concerned with comparisons of counselling methods rather than counselling itself. The only study identified which explicitly focused on anxiety levels as a result of counselling concerned familial breast cancer (Lloyd, 1996). Counselees had higher breast cancer specific distress rates after counselling than before, despite being more informed. The potential for counselling to be a worrying or threatening experience is underlined. As Jarmas has pointed out, counselling may also have adverse psychological impacts on counsellors, an issue that does not yet seem to have attracted investigators. Nevertheless, anxiety reduction among those tested may be one of the less contentious outcome measures. 2. 4 Client satisfaction: The importance has also been defined in terms of clients’ satisfaction. In one study, 36 individuals who had received counselling for cancer were asked to rate their satisfaction both with the care provided by the clinical geneticist they had seen, and with general procedures at the clinic (L. P. ; Leschot N. J. , 1997). In another, clients were asked to rate counselling sessions in terms of clarity, depth of discussion and their willingness to raise issues; the ratings were examined for evidence of influence from the sex of the counsellor (Zare, 1984). However, both studies acknowledged the limitations of their approach, stressing the importance of relating such findings to qualitative analysis of the actual counselling sessions. Reported satisfaction is a questionable measure of process, since it does not necessarily relate to what actually occurred during the session. As Clarke et al. highlight, while research has focused on outcome, effectiveness is also fundamentally related to process. In their view, while outcome measures are valid in a research context, they are useless in practice, a position echoed by other commentators who argue that outcome measures used alone are both inappropriate and methodologically inadequate (Kessler, 1992). 3. Structural and Numerical Abnormalities There are two types of aberrations that karyotyping could be identified in the foetus – these are numerical and structural. Numerical aberrations depict loss or gain of chromosomes which might be one or more. The title aneuploidy has been given to such kinds of aberrations. The term trisomy expresses the occurrence of a single extra chromosome and the term polyploidy shows the occurrence of two or more chromosomes (Mosby, 2005). Structural chromosome rearrangements are considered to be the other main sort of aberration; this is an outcome of partition and reunification in a different configuration of chromosome. These aberrations also contain translocations, which includes the exchange of genetic materials among chromosomes. One of the most famous aberrations identified during the prenatal period are aneuploidies such as trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome), and X and Y sex chromosome aneuploidies (Divane, 1994). 95% of live-born chromosomal aberrations occur as a result of them (Whiteman, 1991). Chronologically occurrences of various chromosome aberrations are very difficult in composition because certain aberrations have such negative side effect that the survival chances of the foetus are significantly reduced. Statistics and facts that are gathered on the occurrence of different aberrations on certain occasions must have to be present in relation to the number of births (which are before or after birth), occasionally in comparison to the numbers of amniotic samples examined, or at other times in terms of pregnancies. . Table1. Chromosome abnormalities commonly detected their frequency and consequences (Grimshaw, 2003). Chromosome number, shape, and size form the karyotype. In spite of the fact that every karyotype is varied for each organism, every cell in every organism has the same karyotype. Chromosomal abnormalities can be separated into two categories: numeric and structural (Figure 1) (Todd, 2000). Changes in chromosome numbers result in the addition (trisomy or triploidy) or loss (monosomy or aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Between and within chromosomes structural changes could appear. Regions between chromosomes can be traded (translocation) or donated from one to the other (insertion). In the same chromosome, regions can be lost (deletion), duplicated (amplification), or reversed (inversion). It is a challenge for medical professionals to correctly identify these structural alterations and following that counsel the patients (Todd, 2000). Figure:1 Diagrammatic representation of chromosomes and their structural alteration: A) Chromosomes 3 and 8 stained with giemsa (G-banding) at a resolution of the 400 band level. Each chromosome has a short (p) and long (q) arm that is separated by a centromere at one end and a telomere at the other. Chromosomes are described as metacentric (chromosome 3) or acrocentric (chromosome 8), depending on the position of the centromere. Bands and sub-bands are numbered from the centromere outward. B) Structural aberrations involving 2 chromosomes. Illustrated is a fragment from chromosomes 3 (yellow) and 8 (blue) undergoing translocation [t (3;8)(p21-pter;p21-pter)] and insertion [ins (3;8)(q21. 2-21. 3;q13. 3-22)]. C) Structural alterations involving a single chromosome illustrated (using chromosome 3) include amplification [dup(3)(p21-pter)], inversion [inv(3)(p21-pter)], and deletion [del(3)(p21-pter)] (Todd, 2000). Figure 2: The human karyotype and aberrations. A) The normal human karyotype consists of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Autosomes are chromosome pairs 1-22. The sex chromosomes consist of a pairing of the X and Y chromosomes (XX _ female; XY _ male). B) Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids. At the end of each chromatid is the telomere. The centromere (â€Å"clear zone†) is found in a centric or paracentric position. C) Numeric aberrations of the human karyotype appear in many diseases and syndromes. Most commonly, the change is an addition (trisomy) of loss (aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Down’s syndrome is an important example. D) Structural alterations are another important chromosomal aberration. Many types of structural alterations exist in human disease and syndromes. The Philadelphia chromosome, found in chronic myelogenous leukemia, is an important example and a major prognostic factor (Todd, 2000). 4. Methods Used in Genetic Counselling Programme 4. 1 Amniocentesis: Amniocentesis is one of several diagnostic tests that are carried out for mothers undergoing Genetic counselling. It detects the chromosome disorders that can occur in the unborn child. In this process, a sample of the fluid from the amnion is removed and then tested for disorders like Down’s syndrome, anaemia etc. This test is carried out during the 15th week of pregnancy. Amniotic fluid is used for different tests in the laboratory like karyotyping etc. However, amniocentesis increases the risk of miscarriage and therefore, this test is recommended only for women who have a high risk of chromosome abnormality. 4. 2 Conventional cytogenetics: For prenatal diagnosis the methods that are mainly used in genetic counselling are classified into two categories: Conventional Genetics and Molecular Cytogenetics (Bui, 2002). 4. 2. 1 Karyotyping In 1969 there was an expansion of karyotyping techniques for banding chromosomes, which allowed the detection of more subtle structural chromosome abnormalities. A karyotype is the exact organization (matching and alignment) of the chromosome complement of a cell. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged and numbered by size, from the largest to the smallest. Karyotype is the normal classification, which illustrates the normal or abnormal, constitutional or acquired chromosomal complement of an individual, tissue or cell line. To determine the numerical chromosomal abnormalities or structural rearrangements –mainly translocations- the conventional cytogenetic techniques should be used (Catalina, 2007). When full karyotype analysis is performed all the samples should be cultured enough so dividing cells are present. Then the cells are harvested, and the metaphase chromosomes are spread onto a microscope slide. The chromosomes are banded by enzyme digestion and then are analyzed by a cytogenetic expert. Advantages: Until now the gold standard for genetic tests is the conventional cytogenetic study, since it is the best one currently available for assessing the whole karyotype at one time. Moreover, it is inexpensive and detects abnormalities bigger than 3Mb in size (Catalina, 2007). Disadvantages: Only dividing cells can be assessed, there is a need for metaphase stage cells. No frozen tissue can be used. Moreover, it is a time-consuming method and due to the lack of automation in sample processing, the time needed to analyze and generate the final report is almost two weeks. Due to the difficulties of analyzing and interpreting the data, an experienced cytogenetic specialist is required (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2 Molecular Cytogenetics Even though, Karyotyping remains the gold standard of chromosome analysis and still is the most frequently used genetic method in prenatal diagnosis, development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technologies (Bui, 2002) is the most significant step in cytogenetics during the past 20 years. Moreover, over the past 30 years modifications in cytogenetic techniques have provided an opportunity to increase sensitive detection of chromosome abnormalities. The invention of FISH techniques has provided the most prominent advances in the fields of research and diagnosis. A complete dissection of complex chromosome rearrangements can be achieved by the new multicolour karyotyping techniques and also provides the prospect of identifying new recurring chromosome rearrangements. Comparatively interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization and genomic hybridization both hindered the use of metaphase chromosomes altogether and have allowed the genetic analysis of previously problematic and unidentifiable targets. New advances in comparative genomic hybridization to DNA microarrays help in achieving high resolution and automated screening for chromosomal imbalances. Rather than replacing conventional cytogenetics, these new techniques have extended the range of cytogenetic analyses when they are applied in a complementary fashion (Kearney, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 1 FISH Background: The most common practice that has been carried out in molecular cytogenetics is known as FISH. In 1988 it was first introduced in USA based clinical cytogenetics, and speedy progress has subsequently been witnessed in this field. In 1991 the first test was made in the UK. This method acquires chromosome-based probes accompanied by fluorescent labels which are attached to them; now these probes can be found in commercial kit form. Microscope systems are required for detection, which are available as basic fluorescence microscopes to advanced image analysis systems known as microscope and camera devices of cooled charged-coupled type. This test involves more effort and resources than presently practising FISH, which is a harder labour test than the existing karyotyping technique (Grimshaw, 2003). Prenatal diagnosis and FISH Test: Fluorescent In-Situ Hybridization studies have been conducted earlier on uncultured amniocytes with the acquisition of single chromosome-specific probes (for example for chromosome 21). However, these probes (centromeric repetitive or alphoid) showed vivid evidence of cross-hybridization between certain chromosomes (e. g. the two probes interacted for chromosomes 13 and 21). This finding paved the roads to the development of different types of probes (cosmid contig and YAC probes). It was successfully demonstrated that the usage of the cosmid prodes to identify Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) in 1994, in a study of 500 uncultured amniotic fluid samples. After a couple of years, the UK introduced the use of YAC probes so to ensure speedy first reports on samples (Lowther, 1996). Although, evidence emerged which predicted that a mixture of five FISH probes could be utilised as a combined multicolour FISH hybridization experiment, when testing the five chromosomes most commonly linked with chromosomal abnormalities (21, 18, 13, X, Y). Further into that these 5-probe FISH test kits were manufactured and made available commercially (Grimshaw, 2003). Figure 3. Diagram of FISH procedures (Carpenter, 2001). A number of techniques, such as multicolour FISH (MFISH) and SKY FISH, have been developed from the FISH-based karyotyping of chromosomes. Fluorescent dyes used spectral karyotyping methods that jot together particular chromosomes regions. By utilizing a chain of specific probes each with changing quantity of dyes, unique spectral characteristics were found in different pairs of chromosomes (Catalina, 2007). There is a wide range of FISH techniques for both diagnostic and research applications. Since commercial availability of probes is increasing most clinical laboratories now use FISH as an addition to cytogenetic diagnosis. Metaphase FISH with specific gene probes provides an accurate assessment of rearrangements with a defined diagnostic or prognostic value, and interphase FISH provides the possibility of analysis on samples that would otherwise fail. One of the most significant advances has been in the development of multicolour FISH technologies which has culminated in FISH-based karyotyping methods. Metaphase CGH provides a global screening approach allowing the analysis of samples previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA (Kearney, 2001). Advantages: FISH is a very rapid method, the results are ready within 24-48 hours. Also it is a sensitive and cost-effective and identifies both numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities in interphase and metaphase nuclei, and permits rapid sex determination (Catalina, 2007). Limitations: However, FISH has some limitations such as cross-hybridization of non-specific fluorescence signals, non-specific background, and suboptimal signal strength. Though, small deletions, duplications and inversions cannot be identified by painting prodes (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2. 2 Multicolour Whole-chromosome Painting (M-FISH AND SKY) The most prominent characteristic of FISH is its ability to simultaneously identify several targets by using variant colours (multicolour FISH). As early as 1989, as many as three targets could be visualized at the same time (Nederlof, 1989). By the early 1990s 7 ±12 different probes in different colours could be simultaneous detected (Dauwerse, 1992), (Ried, 1992). However, it was not until 1996 that developments in probe labelling and digital imaging systems allowed the visualization of the entire chromosome complement in 24 different colours (Schrock, 1996), (Speicher, 1996). The two techniques, M-FISH and SKY, both utilize DOP-PCR amplification of flow-sorted chromosomes and a ‘combinatorial’ labelling approach. The principle behind this for both M-FISH and SKY is the generation of more colours than there are fluorochromes available, by labelling with 1:1 mixtures of fluorochromes. The theoretical number of targets which can be discriminated in this way is 2n=1, where n represents the number of fluorochromes available. Using only five fluorochromes, this allows painting of the whole chromosome in twenty-four coloured complement (see Figure 5). Figure 5. M-FISH colour karyotype of a bone marrow metaphase from an AML patient. G-banding identified a balanced t(1;3)(p32;p13), and this was confirmed by M-FISH (arrows). However, M-FISH also identified a cryptic der(6)t(6;22) not visible by G-banding (arrow). Two copies of the der(6) are present in this cell (Kearney, 2001). The imaging system which is used to discriminate fluorochrome combinations is the only difference between SKY and M-FISH. M-FISH is acquiring different fluorochrome pictures for each of the five fluorochromes using specifically selected narrow band pass filter sets (Eils, 1998),(Speicher, 1996). SKY on the other hand uses a single exposure of the image and a grouping of cooled charge coupled device (CCD) imaging and Fourier transform spectrometry to analyze spectrum of the fluorochrome combinations (Schrock, 1996). Both of these methods use dedicated software to transfer the unique labelling combination for each chromosome into a pseudocolour. It is important to mention that both of them have already demonstrated hidden chromosome rearrangements in complex karyotypes such as in tumour cell lines and in haematological malignancies (Speicher, 1996), (Veldman, 1997). Disadvantages: As with other whole-chromosome painting methods, both M-FISH and SKY are not capable to detect small intrachromosomal rearrangements (inversions, deletions, duplications). Both techniques can not detect mosaic cells. In particular, the limit of resolution for telomeric rearrangements is 2 ±2. 5 Mb (Brown,2000), (Uhrig,1999). Additionally, to overcome these limitations complementary FISH approaches are required. In addition to this, latest reports state that although M-FISH and SKY have proved to be extremely useful in prenatal, postnatal, and cancer cytogenetics, these technologies have innate limitations that, in certain cases, could result in chromosomal misclassification. Most multicolour karyotyping errors have a similar mechanistic origin. Structural rearrangements, which compare non-homologous chromosome material, often come up in overlapping fluorescence at the interface of the translocated segments; called occasionally as â€Å"flaring† (Lu, 2000). This effect can obscure or alter the fluorescence pattern of adjacent chromatin, which could lead to misinterpretation (Lee, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 3 Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) CGH is a technique that presents an overview of the whole genome and allows the detection of DNA copy number changes. It is a powerful option instead of chromosome banding and FISH. This method can detect a genome screening of chromosomal differencies without previous information about genomic regions which could be a potential target. CGH is a substitute method which reveals unbalanced chromosomal changes that may happen in hESCs lines during lengthy-span cultures, especially in cases where it seems difficult to obtain high quality metaphases (Catalina, 2007). Advantages and Limitations of CGH: The obvious edge of the CGH technique is that it requires only the genomic DNA; moreover, CGH does not require prior knowledge of the genomic region of interest. CGH can also identify copy number changes, increases and losses of regions of chromosome. Though, CGH is able to identify a number of quantitative genetic alterations including duplication or deletion of single chromosome bands. The CGH analysis also indicates the presence of genetic abnormalities that are not detected by other cytogenetic or molecular approaches. The turgidity of this technique in detecting low copy number gains or losses is in between 10-20Mb, therefore the detection limit of amplification is 2Mb. However, CGH has several limitations such as inability to detect chromosomal balanced translocation, inversions, and intragenic rearrangements (Catalina, 2007). Figure 7: Comparison of cytogenetic techniques for identifying chromosomal abnormalities (Speicher, 2005) Although the advances of the techniques utilized in genetic counselling are major, all of them come with their own share of advantages and disadvantages. The same is summarized in Table 2. Quantitative fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) QF-PCR combines the benefits of relative and competitive RT-PCR. It is accurate, specific, high throughput and relatively easy to execute. Real time PCR automates the lengthy relative RT-PCR process by quantitating reaction products for each sample in every cycle. RT-PCR systems detect and quantify the fluorescent reporter. The signal of this reporter increases in direct proportion to the amount of PCR product in the reaction. The reporter is a double-strand DNA which is bound to a specific dye (SYBR Green) and upon excitation emits light. If the dye is included in PCR reaction as PCR product accumulates the fluorescence increase. An alternative technique for quantifying PCR products is TaqMan, which depends on fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) of hybridization probes for quantitation. The probe hybridizes to an internal region of a PCR product. After irradiation the excited reporter dye transfers energy to the nearby quenching dye, which results in a non-fluorescent substrate. The advantages of this method are that it is inexpensive, simple to use, and sensitive The future of prenatal diagnosis: Full karyotype or molecular cytogenetics tests? The introduction of rapid molecular testing of all prenatal samples has brought up the question of the need for full karyotype analysis of all samples. When ultrasonography shows chromosomal abnormality, and there is no aneuploidy can be identified by frequent testing, full karyotyping is definitely required. However, when women have been identified by serum screening and/or maternal age as being at increased risk of Down’s syndrome they undergo persistent testing. â€Å"Double testing† of these women in a public-funded health service could be considered as unjustifiable and there are also down points for the parents. The time between the results of the rapid test and the full karyotyping could cause needless anxiety. Additionally most parents do not realize the significance of the full karyotyping; because they only worry about Down’s syndrome and not for the possibility of other abnormalities. Full karyotype analysis could identify abnormalities of unidentified importance, likewise the presence of very small â€Å"marker† chromosomes, clearly balanced chromosome rearrangements, or regions of variability, which could be hereditary. These outcomes could frequently create counselling difficulties, and cause problems for the parents in how to deduce and choose between anxiety and pregnancy termination during an ongoing pregnancy. When a chromosome rearrangement is found in one of the parents, full karyotyping is needed to test for abnormalities arising as a result of the rearrangement. However, recent advances in the policy of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for rearrangement carriers (Scrivn, 1998) have permited rapid prenatal testing for chromosome imbalance using sub telomere probes (Pettenati, 2002). The UK National Screening Committee (UKNSC) suggested in 2004 that there is no need for karyotyping when screening for Down’s syndrome and instead prenatal diagnosis with FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridisation) or PCR as rapid diagnostic tests as should be offered. Furthermore, UKNSC also suggested that the two previous tests should only be included for trisomies 13, 18, and 21. Before introducing the radical step of rapid testing alone for pregnancies at risk of Down’s syndrome, it is important to set up the significance and predicted effect of such a change in policy. Full karyotype results of prenatal samples from these referral categories can be audited to determine how many clinically significant chromosome abnormalities are likely to be undetected if rapid testing alone had been carried out. Recent studies which are investigativing karyotype abnormalities in prenatal samples referred for raised maternal age (RMA) or increased Down’s syndrome risk identified by serum screening will be reviewed in the following paragraph: In 1,130 prenatal samples, which were all referred for RMA or elevated risk of Down’s syndrome, an important clinical abnormality in chromosome 8 was identified (deletion of the short arm), which would not be identified by rapid testing (Thein et al). This is responsible for 0. 08% of the sample group. Thilaganathan et al. reported 3,203 amniotic fluid samples, were referred for a number of reasons. Rapid testing here did not detect all clinically significant abnormalities, which were detected with ultrasound. On another study, Ryall et al.reported 2,737 prenatal samples from pregnancies referred as serum screen +ve and an abnormality in chromosome 2 and 6 were detected. In the largest cohort study with 20,923 referrals around 30 important abnormalities were identified which includes four small marker chromosomes (Lewin et al. ). Among them, three pregnancies had trisomy 8, three trisomy 9, and three trisomy 16; and were all non-mosaic and therefore non-viable. Additionally thirteen cases of structurally abnormal chromosomes were identified, and complex abnormalities were found in four pregnancies. Rapid testing would detected as far as 99. 2% of clinical significant abnormalities, when pregnencies are reffered to RMA or serum +ve. In these studies, 196 balanced rearrangements or other good prognosis anomalies were found, which would have required parental karyotyping. This would lead to anxiety and in some cases termination of pregnancy. 5. Summary The future seems very exciting since the new developments in genetic information will present great challenges for genetic counselling. Medical doctors are currently facing problems in understanding and retaining genetic information outside their own scientific area. In some cases it is still not clear when test should be offered, since if a family is affected legal action could be used to question why an available test was not offered. Eventually, more diagnostic techniques would help to identify and treat more effectively, but not without false positives. Though, queries about which disorders to diagnose and when, (e. g. premarital, pre-conceptional, foetal, childhood, adulthood) will continue. It is important to mention that molecular cytogenetic increase the progress of prenatal diagnosis used in genetic counselling programmes to reveal chromosomal abnormality. The molecular cytogenetic techniques provide speed, accurate, ease and reliable diagnosis although there are some limitations associated with these techniques. However, if combination of the conventional techniques and molecular ones wil

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Bookertee - Essay Example He stressed that Blacks were not ready for the traditional form of education; rather they should take up an occupation or a skill by which they can support themselves. Washington showed a path to the struggling Negroes by which they can create their basic identity and be self sufficient in the long run. However, there were negative aspects to this plan as future academics such as Du Bois pointed out. Washington had stressed that the Blacks needed selective education, that they were not ready to be educated in the traditional form. But, according to Du Bois the African Americans deserved the same form of education as the Whites. He believed in the philosophy that Fast and Fury wins the race. According to him unless and until the Blacks made a struggle to educate themselves they would limit themselves to the lower segment of society prone to be harassed by the Southern Whites. Another negative aspect of the plan was Washington’s stress that the Blacks adopt a subordinate role towards the Southern Whites. He is actually asking the Blacks to let go of their struggle against Whites and continue to be backward and underprivileged member of the society. IF the Blacks had continued to follow his advice, there would not have been many prominent African Americans in the country. According to me Washington was right in asking the Blacks to take an academic route to liberate them from White oppressiveness. He asked the members of his community to stick to education and acquire any useful trade so as to gain economic independence. A steady income would help in supplementing all the essential elements of life. Education would open their mind to newer possibilities in life and make them come out of their shell. This policy is still followed by a number of African American of today who have shifted to trade and commerce to acquire richness in life and move ahead in the economic ladder. a. A Negro Love Story: This poem

Hacking; dangerous effects on the society

Hacking; dangerous effects on the society Abstract Hacking is just like a cancer that has very dangerous effects on the society. Today in this modern world, where measures have been taken to improve the security level in the distributed systems hackers have found a way to crack into systems and take away information. In this paper, I will explain you few aspects of hacking that has caused of its existence and few techniques through which we can minimise this. What are the different issues and motivations that arise in a person that he opts for hacking? Is money, thrill or something to break the rules inspires the hacker to indulge into such acts are discussed in this paper. This paper also gives you an insight to consider how important the network security plays to avoid hackers to steal away information that is very confidential. Measures are to be taken in order to remove these possibilities. In recent years we have seen a drastic change in the field of IT, where electronic commerce, email, online shopping, online banking, information bank of numerous data, software development has improved leaps and bounds. As the technology has increased to new heights the hackers have found a way to get easy money. They find ways to get into government confidential files, personal banking details, steal away their money from the banks, implant a Trojan or virus into different computers to make them vulnerable to work. In this paper I have thrown some light on hackers skills, their perspective, their targets. Introduction Hacking according to oxford dictionary means to gain unauthorized access (to data in a computer). Banks defines hacking as something that boring mainframe computer operators did to improve performance and battle boredom. [1]. Here a bank focuses on boredom as the reason of hacking. Darlington believes hacking is not limited to accessing data or information but also includes an attack on the privacy of all people [5]. Almost all different opinions agree on the illegality of hacking. On the other hand the word hacker is the agent of hack or hacking and it was defined as a person who enjoys accessing files whether for fun, imposing power or the interest related to the accessed files or data according to Taylor [8]. While Marotta has a negative view of the hacker as a data lord, a barbarian who takes what he wants [9]. Himanen defines hacker as any person who performs illegal actions whether they were related to computer or not which means the usage of a device apart from its functionality. Seems hacking according to Himanen is related to any illegal or unauthorized action [7]. Clear from the definitions mentioned above that there is a controversy that encounters the judgment and definition of hacking, controversy aroused because its hard to decide exactly what the aim is behind hacking or how to know the mentality of the hacker. Thats why the ethics and motivation of hackers should be paid attention and discussed then understanding the hacker will be much easier. Who is the hacker? According to Taylor, Hacker can be anyone who has knowledge of things; he can be a graduate or a computer professional working at a multinational company. He can be one amongst us. A is part of the society, a computer professional who wants to use technology for his own benefit [11]. Hackers are experts and professional people who first enjoy the technology and through research and development they gain more interest and you never know when this curiosity of technology changes into crime. People must realise that the technology is good lest it is used for the countries benefit, but it has adverse affect when things turn upside down, that the hackers learn this technique in order to gain profits for themselves through illegal ways. Levy described hackers in regard to the history; she divided the life history of hackers into three generations: the first generation of hacking was made of experts of computer programming who never stopped improving their skills then misuse them, the secon d generation was made of computer hardware developers who found hacking and accessing data and information for free as an appealing idea while the third generation included developers of games architecture [8]. And I think the fourth generation of developers are those who know about computers and have just enough knowledge about computer programming. Pipkin classification of hackers depends on the functionality, in other words the classification depends on the way hacker interacts with what is being hacked. Hackers were classified into three different types; the first type is called In-house hacker. An in-house hackers actually works inside the company, who knows the system security, has access to all the features. His motivation to hacking might be because he wasnt recognised as a potential candidate for promotion or because he was betrayed by his fellow colleagues. The second type of hackers is a super hacker who doesnt interact with the system, but remotely monitors all the movements or the data transactions that are going on and depending on the situation and the amount of money that is being transferred he then changes that transaction into his account. And finally, comes the professional hacker, he is very strong and capable of getting any type of data from anywhere, he has the ability to manipulate things and change them t o his benefit, programming Trojans and software that get installed on the system through hidden window and then sits on the system[10]. Motivations behind Hacking: Hackers psychology and the fuel that encourages him/her to perform such illegal activities, also because hackers view about what they are doing is far different from our views as victims Furnell ([6] Pipkin, in his paper Halting the hacker, says the challenging part of the hackers personality as the biggest motivation; this means that the hacker feels the joy and excitement when hacking systems that are provided with the almost perfect security tools [10]. One of the main reasons for hacking is excitement where hackers find adrenalin rush to break the law, to find an easy access to earn money by hacking crucial information of the customers by creating unreal shopping websites and obtaining payment details, credit card details. Furnell judged hackers depending on the harm they cause whatever was their motivation, because hacking is a disease and should be removed so that the effect of hacker attacks will be minimized [6]. The motivations behind hacking are an issue that is discussed heavily due to the importance of understanding the An ethical hacker attempts to duplicate the intent and actions of malicious hackers without causing harm. Ethical hackers conduct penetration tests to determine what an attacker can find out about an information system, whether a hacker can gain and maintain access to the system, and whether the hackers tracks can be successfully covered without being detected. The ethical hacker operates with the permission and knowledge of the organization they are trying to defend and tries to find weaknesses in the information system that can be exploited. In some cases, to test the effectiveness of their information system security team, an organization will not inform their team of the ethical hackers activities. This situation is referred to as operating in a double blind environment. To operate effectively, the ethical hacker must be informed of the assets that should be protected, potential threat sources, and the extent to which the organization will support the ethical hackers efforts. Hacker and Ethical Hacker Characteristics and Operation: Hackers can be categorized into the three general classes of black hats, gray hats, and white hats. A black hat hacker or cracker has the necessary computing expertise to carry out harmful attacks on information systems. A gray hat is a hacker with a split personality. At times, this individual will not break the law and, in fact, might help to defend a network. At other times, the gray hat hacker reverts to black hat activities. The white hat individual usually has exceptional computer skills and uses his or her abilities to increase the security posture of information systems and defend them from malicious attacks. This individual might be an information security consultant or security analyst. Entities that perform ethical hacking functions for organizations usually fall into one of three categories: white hats, former black hats, and independent consulting organizations. The white hat ethical hacker has the appropriate computer skills and understanding of the black hat hacker mentality and methods. This person might be an independent consultant hired to perform ethical hacking activities. The former black hat hacker is, we might hope, reformed and brings actual black hat experience to his or her work. There is a concern about this individual in that you can never be certain that he or she will not revert to their former malicious activities. The third category of ethical hacker is taken by consulting companies that perform a variety of services for organizations including accounting, auditing, and information system security. Related Types of Computer Crime and attack: Different kind of hacking attacks are considered as computer crimes. The following is the list of crimes which are committed frequently: Password Hacking. Hackers find a way to illegally hack into the passwords of users of federal bureau, banks in order to gain benefits from them. Network intrusions. Malicious Trojan, worms and viruses to gain access into the information systems. Cheat. Illegal use of people identities such as credit card details. Software piracy. Illegal copying and use of software Viruses. Viruses, Trojan horses and worm cause the computers to become more vulnerable and susceptible to hardware damage. IP address spoofing. Disguising the IP address and using that to gain illegal access into countries most confidential files. Money Laundering Illegally acquiring funds through the manipulation and falsification of financial statements and illegal transactions. Data-modification. The modifying all the data. Smuggling of files. Gain illegal access of confidential files including bodies like military/government networks, communication systems, power grids, and the financial community Pipkin lists a number of hacking attacks that are most commonly used in breaking system and causing disruption and damage for services. These attacks can be summarized as following [10]: Software piracy is a criminal offense. Many hackers have indulged in making copies of software and selling them to gain profits on their own. The companies who develop these software will have to bare all the losses only because of someone who is illegally misusing software. Stealing confidential files through illegal access of the companies most confidential files. Hackers have many such motives, few of them like denial of services to the user and to make hardware conflict, making unwanted popup, causing trouble, terrorism. Taylor listed the main characteristics of hacking attacks in three points [8]: Simplicity: means that the attack should be simple in appearance but the effects are impressive and the results will be as pleasing to the hacker as what he planned for. It means that do your job in a smart and easy way. Mastery: the methods used in hacking contain sophisticated knowledge which is difficult for anyone to understand. The reason behind mastery is to make sure that the hacker is the only one who can solve the problem being caused. Illicitness: means that the act is against all rules and laws. Conclusion: Earlier hackers were considered to be genius because they helped in many ways in the development of computers and internet technology as such, but in this modern world where personal benefit has played a major importance in ones life, people are often attracted to things they can do and gain through illegal entry into people privacy and using for their own benefits. Different motivations and opinions have been discussed in this paper, but if we consider them as a person they are a live example of genius because of their abilities of doing the unbelievable and unachievable by getting more involved into the programming and understanding the loop holes in the security systems. I think because of these, scientists and researchers have spent lots of technology to improve the systems security and make them more secure so that no illegal access can be gained. In my own view understanding the different perspective of a hacker, we can develop a much more secure and much more sophisticated environment and provide a safer world for transactions and online shopping. The bad things of them should be taken into good only to benefit our country and its progress. Bibilography: Banks, Michael A. (1997), Web psychos, stalkers, and pranksters: How to protect yourself online. Arizona (USA). Chakrabati, Anirban and Manimaran, G. (2002), Internet infrastructure security: A Taxonomy, IEEE Network, November/December 2002, P.13. CNET (2001), FBI hack raises global security concerns Crucial paradigm (2003), Hacking attacks-How and Why. Darlington, R (2001), Crime on the net Furnell, Steven. (2002), Cybercrime: Vandalizing the information society, Boston; London: Addison-Wesley. Himanen, Pekka. (2001), The hacker ethic and the spirit of information age, Great Britain. Levy, Hacker: Heroes of the computer revolution, Hackers: Crime in the digital sublime. Hackers: Crime in the digital sublime Halting the hacker: A practical guide to computer security Taylor, Paul A. (1999), Hackers: Crime in the digital sublime, London.

Private Education vs Public Education Essay -- essays papers

Private Education vs Public Education Public Education v/s Private Education A person’s education is one of the most important factors in determining whether or not they will become a productive member of society. That is why when considering an education the quality of the education is almost as important as the education itself. So when private schools came into the picture the debate then began between public and private schools. Facing the technological revolution that we are going through without a good quality education a person will be left behind. Even though public and private schools are separate institutions they have to follow certain guidelines so there are a lot of similarities between the two. Such as, both school systems have the intentions of giving their students the best education within their means. Both have educated professionals that have decided to devote the rest of their careers to furthering the education of our youth. They each have set up rules hoping to keep it a positive learning environment. They both use standardized testing as a tool to evaluate the progress of their students. They can also access the weaknesses from these tests to improve the curriculum that they have composed. They also have clubs like volunteer groups that help out people in their surrounding community. There are also student governments where students elect students to improve upon the learning environment in which they are. Schools also have...

Fairness Creams

Review of Literature No one knows beauty products better than women, who are always trying something or the other on their skin. From Banana to Rose water yes they have tried it all to look younger and for a fairer complexion. But apart from all these natural products is there a product in the Indian market which can make a women or man fairer in fewer days, we will find out by reviewing these fairness creams. Since nearly every product in the market claims to making you fair from Shahid Kapoor to John Abraham and from Katrina Kaif to Kajole selling Olay products.The market for beauty products is vast but the market for fairness creams I think occupies 90% of the space. Long from the days of Britisher’s have always loathed dark skin thinking the white is always right, because of the hot climate in India most of us are dark skinned. And no matter what we try the colour pigmentation in our skin doesn’t seem to be responding to these products easily. Ever wished could just wash off the colour of your skin just like those Tide washing powder ads, where dirt vanishes instantly?Fair and Handsome: –  Shockingly the Indian fairness cream market never saw the males as their potential customers, until the Emami Fair and Handsome cream was launched. It can be said as the first cream to focus on Indian males. It is priced around 37 Rs for a medium pack. And yes I must say it works, atleast on my complexion it did show some positive results. But it has drawbacks the cream is sticky and does not spread over your skin. May be a gel base formulation would make it more effective. The ingredients have not been shared by the cream makers but they claim it to be Ayurvedic and natural.Garnier for Men Power Light:-  Garnier is a well known brand among beauty products, it has recently launched its popular Garnier for Men Powerlight cream, with a gel based cream Garnier Powerlight seems to be effective for all skins. It also provides with SPF15 sun screen. Tho ugh it is not for people who can spend. It is priced above 100 Rs for a single pack. The efficacy of the cream may depend on usage and your skin type. These are some of the main fairness creams from Indian market in the major products to go after are Olay and Fair and Handsome.Though Olay has been focused on woman I think men too can try it for best results, remember to use face wash and clean your skin on regular basis for healthy and glowing results. There are other new products as well Fair and Lovely menz active, Nivea for Men, Vasline Mens etc. Rest melanin is an eminent part of human skin and prevents us from Sun damage there is no shame in have a dark complexion some of our famous models and actress are dark skinned too. There are a lot of  beauty  products  in the market available these days for the purpose of beautification and nurture of the body.Most of the people want to have a better personality but they are actually found perplexed about what they should do to ge t and sustain that cause. A perfect personality includes better physique,  glowing  skin  and rather a fair and youthful complexion. In order to have a lighter skin tone, most of the people consider using skin fairness creams. Both of the men and women prefer to have a color that is appealing yet tempting for their overall look. Men want better-looking complexion because in today’s world they are generally outgoing and athletic to represent themselves in front of others.With the availability of the men’s fairness creams out there, it is quite confusing to decide the best one for the face and for the skin type you have. You should avoid rushing through the whole collection and selecting something that is not ought to suit you. Our skin is a really sensitive organ that needs to be kept nurtured and smooth. You should also take care of any allergic reactions that you might suffer after applying certain beauty products. There are certain organic and mineral skin  c are  products that can be consider for the cause.These would be free from the synthetic elements and don’t even have to worry about the side effects the artificial products might bring . Prefer the quality of the brand .. Sometimes, the most famous brands might not work for the different skin types. Choose the lighter products in order to make your skin fair and bright. Do not have to go with the products that exaggerate the skin too much. skin needs freshness that should provide on utmost basis. Consult a beautician before buying a cream . so can know well about the consistent good ones and you can differentiate the better ones according to the skin types.Perform a bit of research on the kinds before making a decision. There are even some fairness pills that create rashes and  acne  on the skin. might end up having other skin issues instead of a younger, attractive and fairer skin. ? Best Fairness Cream A Skin's Pride By: Albert Cain |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  A fair complexion has always been associated with success and popularity. Men and women alike desire fairness; it is believed to be the key to a successful life. As most of the Indians are very much bothered about their colour complexion the fairness creams enjoy very good market growth rate when compared with other related product.There are number of fairness creams and other skin whitening products in the market such as peel-offs, serums, lotions etc. ? Hi Handsome: The Dream Of Every Man By: pthomas |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  The Hi Handsome TV Commercial has given every man an opportunity to dream of a fair complexion. Everyone wants to be as lucky as the boy not by sneaking into a girl's hostel, but by applying the magical fairness cream. Men have started imagining themselves in place of the boy. Imagine walking on the road with ten girls around you and shouting out Hi Handsome!Aahh It's a dream come true. Read more:  http://www. articlesnatch. com/topic/fairness+cream+for+men#ixzz10H8337u9 ? Should You Consider Lightening Your Skin? By: Bart Icles |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  We all want to look our best, and many people would exert every possible effort in order to achieve the kind of appearance that they've been aspiring to have. People buy tons of makeup and beauty products just to enhance their looks, get haircuts, have their hair colored, lose weight, and overhaul their wardrobe in order to make themselves over and feel like they're entirely new people. Your Skin Is Asking For Some Thing By: [email  protected] com |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Skin is the reflector of what our habits are. Basically it is the mirror which expresses the inner state of body, our eating habits, sleeping slots, care taken for the body, all these says the story of the skin. A healthy skin is what everyone and especially women want to enjoy, but is every one enjoying the healthy state of the skin. So, the answer for this question is no, not everyone enjoys healthy and glowing skin. ? Choose Best Health ; Skin Care Produc tsBy: scott hardy |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Taking care of our health and well being are our primary objectives in this new world of health consciousness and awareness. Various health programs, weight loss pills, food supplements, antioxidant products are flooding the market today all claiming for good health and proper health care and hygiene. Many manufacturers are joining the bandwagon and a lot of personal care and beauty products are available to suit a high level of demand from consumers. ? Meladerm: The Very Fresh Marvel Of Skin TreatmentBy: Jennifer Lowdry |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  The particular type of particular person who is actually really aware by their own look? Or perhaps are one of those people that do not really feel at ease with the existence of a solitary black blemish or pimple damaged spot on their facial area? Quite a few utilizes skin whiteners in order to get free of this particular issue. However, along with the plenty of skin whiteners within the marketplace, which one part icular must be select? ? Face Whitening Creams By: Kelan Grady |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Extrapone Nutgrass is a good natural whitening ingredient that should be searched for.When it comes to skin whitening ingredients, there are a hefty lot of them in the market. However, Extrapone Nutgrass has been proven more effective in preventing excessive melanin production in a few short weeks thereby reducing and eliminating dark pigmentations and surface age spots. One example of a common skin lightening ingredient is hydroquinone. | | ? Skin Whitening With Bio Claire By: Bart Icles |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Wanting lighter or paler skin might sound unusual to people from countries in the Western world.However, in many other countries, skin whitening is practically a common process among many women, particularly those who are born with darker complexion or have dark spots or marks on their skin; those who have experienced sunburn or tanning, with their skin not returning to their original shade, also use sk in whiteners. ? Skin Whitening With Natural Way By: jony rich |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  The fact is that this may be possible with a little dedication and research right. There are several homemade skin whitening products that can help you be more fair. Apply sunscreen before leaving home. It will protect your hard sunlight.It is advisable to wear sunglasses to protect your eyes and face of the pollutants. ? Oily Skin: Its Skin Care Regime By: Stone Keron |  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  Oily skin is definitely a cause for embarrassment when out for a party or a get-together. No makeup can withstand for a long time and will start looking dull, boring and so unkempt. Skin care regime therefore becomes highly essential for the oily skin. There are a whole lot of oily skin products that would help in overcoming the woes of having such a slimy skin. No doubt, there is a belief that people with such a skin do not appear to age quickly on the external face. Skin Protection Day Cream By: Dr. bruswiliams |  Ã¢â‚¬ “  Most of a Skin Protection Day Cream for at least 8-10 hours a day 7 days a week. When you consider how many hours this adds up to, your day cream needs to contain beneficial ingredients that will deliver immediate visible results. The truth about what the skin really needed and it was Hydration! Most anti-aging day creams and other anti-aging skin care products on the market today contain ingredients that are molecularly to large to be absorbed into the skins surface. ? The Real Deal On Skin Care Devices By: Michi A.   -A  Women always want to look and feel beautiful that's why they are constantly seeking ways on how to maintain their skin. As having a perfect skin has always been equated to beauty. Blame it on the media and the standards that they have imposed on beauty. Using moisturizers, slathering anti aging and whitening creams, undergoing cosmetic procedures and getting skin injectables are among the popular ways that women do to beautify their skin. Using skin car e devices is also another way or a method. Article: ‘Fairness creams' target both genders, well, fairly. Global Idea Network)(Brief article) Eyline: Mythili Chandrasekar â€Å"Fairness creams† are a large product category for women in India. Over the years, the promise of these creams has moved from † Can find a husband† to â€Å"you can get a job. † Progressive ads show women as having the upper hand in choosing partners, and the jobs the protagonists in the ads get have changed from air hostess (traditionally a â€Å"modern† profession) to cricket commentator. ALL IS FAIR IN THIS MARKET (Hindustan Lever Ltd's Fair and Lovely is the market leader with a 53 percent share).Asia Africa Intelligence Wire |  September 05, 2002  | (From India Business Insight) The Rs700-crore skin fairness products market is estimated to be growing at 10-15 percent per annum. Hindustan Lever Ltd's Fair and Lovely is the market leader with a 53 percent share. Cav inKare's brand Fairever with about 12 percent market share stands second and Godrej's FairGlow third with 3. 5 percent market share. Himalaya Drug Co recently forayed into this segment and expects to garner a 2 percent market share. The other players in the field are emami and Revlon.

Example of Graduate School Admission Essay †Alternatives to INSEAD

Example of Graduate School Admission Essay – Alternatives to INSEAD Free Online Research Papers Discuss your career goals. What are your alternatives to INSEAD? (500 words approx.) My early goals of pursuing a professional tennis career laid not only my path from Brazil to the United States, but also from high school to college. However, it was my affinity to development, self improvement and creativity which gave direction to my professional business career. During my college years, the internet became a powerful marketing tool. One of my first professional projects was to lead a team to redesign a Web site. This experience solidified my interest in marketing and exposed me to the enormous potential of this area. In addition, having an inside out exposure to my father’s successful business, gave me an overall appreciation and understanding to every area of business administration. The opportunity to see how his company evolved through time and established itself as a leader in Brazil heightened my interest in management. Marketing and management fascinates me not only because it gives companies their identity and direction, but also it stimulates creativity. So far, my professional experiences have allowed me to develop insight into various industries and have improved my interpersonal skills. My positions at PubliCARD, have given me the opportunity to interact with businessmen from all over the world, thereby expanding my international perspective. Because of my outstanding work performance, I was chosen to attend various meetings and tradeshows with international companies such as Sony, Microsoft and Scientific Atlantic. It was highly unusual for a young person to represent the company at such events, so my self confidence, as well as my management skills, has been greatly enhanced through these experiences. Despite my experience, I still feel I can further improve my knowledge and management skills, whether in finance, marketing, and entrepreneurship. Personal satisfaction also plays a key role in my career decision. While monetary rewards are of practical importance, true job satisfaction springs from the opportunity to grow and learn within an industry. I enjoy acquiring new skills and information, which help me to adapt to the fast-changing world, as well as pique my interest in innovation. In addition, a career with international exposure would give me constant incentive to improve myself and to gain more knowledge. Given the confluence of my personal and professional interests, my goal is to obtain a MBA and then to work as a CEO or general manager, either in the consulting or industry sectors. Becoming part of an elite business school will smooth the path to these goals. A MBA program will deepen my expertise and broaden my perspectives. Moreover, being in a multicultural environment will increase my practical knowledge of entrepreneurship by interacting with my classmates. In addition to this, I plan to use my private time to attend foreign language courses in order to broad my reach to international markets. When I have gathered enough experience and skills, I plan to restart a consulting company of my own. I spent the last eight and a half years in the United States and I believe it will be beneficial for me to acquire additional experience in Europe before starting a MBA program. Therefore, I am currently relocating to Paris. Even tough, I am still involved with the company in the United States; I am going to work with another company in Europe. As far as options to the MBA Progamme at Insead are the MBA programs from HEC and IESE. Research Papers on Example of Graduate School Admission Essay - Alternatives to INSEADAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaMoral and Ethical Issues in Hiring New EmployeesThe Project Managment Office SystemDefinition of Export QuotasHip-Hop is ArtPETSTEL analysis of IndiaOpen Architechture a white paperResearch Process Part OneMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAW

Water Pollution and Global Warming Essay Example

Water Pollution and Global Warming Essay Example Water Pollution and Global Warming Paper Water Pollution and Global Warming Paper Essay Topic: Water pollution As a result it plays important roles in ecosystem support, economic development, cultural values and community well-being. Dozens of times a day those of us who live in the industrialized nations of the world enjoy a blessing denied to 75 percent of the world population: abundant supplies of clean water. But water is essential for life on earth. No known organisms can live without it. For centuries water has been used as a dumping ground for human sewage and industrial wastes. Added to them are the materials leached out and transported from and by water percolating through the soil and running off its surface to aquatic ecosystems. Water pollution is degradation of water quality. Any physical, chemical, or biological change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired use can be considered pollution. Thus the term water pollution refers to Water contamination by a variety of chemical substances or transportation caused by several nutrients and fertilizers. Southwest, 1 976 U. S. Department of Health Education and Welfare defines water pollution as The adding to water of any substance or he changing of waters physical and chemical characteristics in any way which interferes with its use of legitimate purposes. At present, water pollution is a major global problem. Everyday many people are dying for water pollution. Now water pollution becomes the leading cause of death diseases. 3 1. 2 Sources of Water Pollution : There are many sources of water pollution. But before knowing that, we need to know that what are the sources of water, and then we will understand how they are becoming polluted. We get water from two sources Surface Water Ground Water Surface Water is fresh water mound on Earths surface in streams and rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs. Surface waters are replenished by the runoff of precipitation from the land and are therefore considered a renewable, although finite resource. Ground Water refers to the fresh water under Earths surface that is stored in aquifers. This water originates as rain or melting snow that seeps into the soil and finds its way down through cracks and spaces in sand, gravel or rock until it is stopped by an impenetrable layer, there it accumulates as groundwater. Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as operate resources, although they are interrelated. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point Sources Nons of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. Point source water pollution re easily findable. So, people can easily control them. Non-point source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. Non-point source pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoffs in storm water from sheet flow over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of Non-point source pollution. 4 Surface Water Pollution : Surface water bodies are extensively used for espousal of untreated industrial wastes and this is one of the main sources of surface water pollution. Surface water pollution is caused by C Domestic Waste : Water pollution Of domestic is mainly caused by sewage. Sewage is defined as the waterborne waste derived from home, animal or food processing plants and includes human excreta, soaps, organic materials, different types of solids, waste food, oil detergents, paper and cloth. They are the largest group of water pollutants. Water pollution is caused by uncontrolled dumping of waste collected from villages, towns and cities into ponds, streams, lakes and rivers. C] Industrial Effluent : The discharge of industrial effluents into the water body caused water pollution. These effluents contain a wide variety of inorganic and organic substances such as oils, greases, plastics, plasticizer, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, pesticides, heavy metals and acids. Major industries of the country are located on or near the coastline or riversides. Organic substances deplete the oxygen content. Inorganic substances render the water unfit for drinking and other purposes. Acids and alkalis adversely effect the growth of fish and other aquatic organisms. Oil and other greasy substances interfere with the self purification mechanism of water. Urban runoff : Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater created by arbitration. This runoff is one of the major sources of water pollution in many urban communities worldwide. The porous and varied terrain of natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and grasslands trap rainwater and snowbell and allow it to slowly filter into the ground. Runoff tends to reach receiving waters gradually. In contrast, nonporous urban landscapes like roads, bridges, parking lots, and buildings dont let runoff slowly percolate into the ground Arbitration also increases the variety and amount of pollutants transported to receiving waters. Sediment from development and new construction; Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from automobiles; nutrients and pesticides from turf management and gardening; viruses and bacteria from failing septic systems; road salts; and heavy metals are examples of pollutants generated in urban areas. Sediments and solids constitute the largest volume of pollutant loads to receiving waters in urban areas. Ã'Å¡ Agricultural runoff : Water pollution can be caused by agricultural wastes such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil additives and animal wastes that are washed off from the land to the aquatic system through irrigation, rainfall and leaching. Oil pollution : There are about 15 million water crafts on navigable waters throughout the world. Their combined waste discharges are equivalent to a city with a population of 2,000,000. Thus oil pollution, an oxygen demanding Waste, is of concern not only from sensational major spills from ships and offshore drilling rigs but also from small spills and cleaning operations. Al Chemical Use : Industrial and agricultural work involves the use of many different chemicals that can run-off into water and pollute it. It can also cause health hazards to human body and many animals and fishes are dying for these chemicals. CLC Thermal Pollution : An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial processes (steel factories, electric power houses and atomic power plants) may be called as thermal pollution. Many industries generate their own power and use water to cool their generators. This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a warming trend of surface waters. Fifth system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the temperature may result. However, if the water is released into he well flushed systems, permanent increase in temperature does not occur. Many organisms are killed instantly by the hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may bring other disturbance in the ecosystem. The eggs of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all. It may lead to unplanned migration of aquatic animals. D Sediments : Sediment is defined as particles derived from soil or rocks that are transported by water or wind. The erosion of land surfaces and stream banks produces sediment. Sediment threatens water supplies and recreation and cause harm to plant and fish communities. Sediment can also be discharged from multiple different sources. Sources include construction sites agricultural fields, stream banks, and highly disturbed areas. D Salinity Intrusion : Saltwater intrusion is a major problem in coastal regions all over the world, as it threatens the health and possibly lives Of many people who live in these areas. It increases the salinity of groundwater and water may become unsuitable for human use. Colonization of groundwater is considered a special category of pollution that threatens groundwater resources, because mixing a small quantity of saltwater in the rainwater makes freshwater unsuitable and can result in abandonment of freshwater supply. CLC Accidental Spills of Chemicals : Accidental spills of environmentally harmful materials can happen anywhere and anytime, polluting land and water. Even echo-friendly cleaners and chemicals can harm the fish, plants and insects in our streams and harbors, if they are washed into stemware drains. 6 Ground Water Pollution : A lot of the Earths water is found underground in soil or under rock structures called aquifers. Humans often use aquifers as a means to obtain drinking water, and build wells to access it. When this water becomes polluted it is called groundwater pollution. Groundwater pollution is often caused by pesticide contamination from the soil, this can infect Our drinking water and cause huge problems. Ground water pollution caused BBC Waste disposal site : Domestic and industrial wastes are collected to dispose them in a place. There are many chemicals which are found in these wastes. The places where these waste are disposed become polluted. If the place has a leak and it lead to the nearby river, then by the leaks, the chemicals go to the river and make the river polluted. D Pesticides : Run-off from farms, skyward, and golf courses contain pesticides such as EDT that in turn contaminate the water. Leech ate from landfill sites is another major contaminating source. Its effects on the ecosystems and health are endocrine and reproductive damage in wildlife. Groundwater is susceptible to contamination, as pesticides are mobile in the soil. It is a matter of concern as these chemicals are persistent in the soil and water. L] Sewage : Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a major source of groundwater and surface water pollution in the developing countries. The organic material that s discharged with municipal waste into the watercourses uses substantial oxygen for biological degradation thereby upsetting the ecological balance of rivers and lakes. Sewage also carries microbial pathogens that are the cause of the spread of disease. C Nutrients : Domestic waste water, agricultural run- off, and industrial effluents contain phosphorus and nitrogen, fertilizer run- off, manure from livestock operations, which increase the level of nutrients in water bodies and can cause transportation in the lakes and rivers and continue on to the coastal areas. The nitrates come mainly from the fertilizer hat is added to the fields. Excessive use of fertilizers cause nitrate contamination Of groundwater, with the result that nitrate levels in drinking water is far above the safety levels recommended. Good agricultural practices can help in reducing the amount of nitrates in the soil and thereby lower its content in the water. 7 Acidification : Acidification of surface water, mainly lakes and reservoirs, is one of the major environmental impacts of transport over long distance of air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide from power plants, other heavy industry such as steel plants, and motor vehicles. This problem is more severe in the US and in parts of Europe. C] Synthetic organics : Many of the 100 DO synthetic compounds in use today are found in the aquatic environment and accumulate in the food chain. Persistent organic pollutants represent the most harmful element for the ecosystem and for human health. For example, industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides. These chemicals can accumulate in fish and cause serious damage to human health. Where pesticides are used on a large-scale, groundwater gets contaminated and this leads to the chemical contamination of drinking water. Ã'Å¡ Arsenic Problem : Most arsenic enters water supplies either from natural deposits in the earth or from industrial and agricultural pollution. Arsenic is a natural element of the earths crust. It is used in industry and agriculture and for other purposes. It also is a byproduct of copper smelting, mining and coal burning. C Suspended Matter : Some pollutants do not dissolve in water as their molecules are too big to mix between the water molecules. This material is called particulate matter and can often be a cause of water pollution. The suspended particles eventually settle and cause thick silt at the bottom. This s harmful to marine life that lives on the floor of rivers or lakes. Biodegradable substances are often suspended in water and can cause problems by increasing the amount of anaerobic microorganisms present. Toxic chemicals suspended in water can be harmful to the development and survival of aquatic life. 8 1. 3 Common Contaminants of Water Pollution : There are some contaminants of water pollution. They are C Infectious Agents : Disease causing agents or pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, parasites. These come from raw sewage and animal waste and they may be responsible for 80% of the asses in developing countries. CLC Oxygen demanding wastes : Reduce Dissolved Oxygen level in the water and affect aquatic life. Sewage, animal manure or biodegradable organic wastes are that type of waste. 0 Inorganic chemicals : Water-soluble acids, toxic compound, salt and metals are the inorganic chemicals. They make water unfit to consume and use for irrigation. Also can harm organisms and cause material corrosion. D Organic chemicals : Organic chemicals are petroleum products, oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, solvents, detergents. Presence of organic chemicals in water cause health kiss to humans and other organisms. Ã'Ëœ Plant nutrients : Nitrates, phosphates, ammonium from fertilizers are plant nutrients. Excessive algal and plant growth lower the oxygen levels when they decompose. Sediment : Sediments are bad for aquatic animals. Mud, silt, sand are the example. Sediment disrupts photosynthesis and transports large amounts of other adsorbed pollutants. Sediments are bad for Aquatic animals. D Radio-ac tive materials : Radon, uranium, Iodine, cesium, thorium, and tritium are the radio-active materials. These materials may come either from natural or anthropogenic sources. Heat : Heat comes from cooling water for power plants other industrial plants. Heat lowers the solubility of oxygen in water and it also affects aquatic lives directly. 9 1. 4 Health Hazards Caused by Water Pollution : Virtually all types of water pollution are harmful to the health of humans and animals. Water pollution may not damage our health immediately but can be harmful after long term exposure. Different forms of pollutants affect the health of animals in different ways. Such as Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are toxic to marine life such as sis and shellfish, and subsequently to the humans who eat them. Heavy metals can slow development; result in birth defects and some are carcinogenic. Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals and those who eat them. Some of the toxins in industrial waste may only have a mild effect whereas other can be fatal. They can cause immune suppression, reproductive failure or acute poisoning. Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and terrestrial life through drinking water. Microbial water pollution is a major problem in the developing world, with diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever being the primary cause of infant mortality. Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the water column. This causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms. Sulfate particles from acid rain can cause harm the health of marine life in the rivers and lakes it contaminates, and can result in mortality. Suspended particles in freshwater reduces the quality of drinking water for humans and the aquatic environment for marine life. Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of photosynthetic plants and micro-organisms. There are some water borne diseases of human which caused by drinking or using polluted water. They are given pillowcase Bacterial infections Viral infections Protozoan infections Hellishness infection Diseases Typhoid, cholera, Paratyphoid fever, Dysentery Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice), Poliomyelitis Amoebic dysentery Roundworm, Hookworm, threadbare 10 2. 0 Global Warming 2. What is Global Warming : Global warming is defined s a natural or human induced increase in the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the Earths surface. The temperature at or near the surface of the Earth is determined by four main factors : ; ; ; ; The amount of sunlight Earth receives. The amount of sunlight Earth reflects. Retention of heat by the atmosphere. Evaporation and condensation of water vapor. In the last 100 years, Earths average surfa ce temperature increased by about 0. 8 co (1. 4 OF). Two thirds of the increase occurred over the last three decades. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. Scientists are more Han 90% certain that most of it is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities. These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized countries. 11 2. 2 Causes of Global Warming : Scientists have spent decades figuring out what is causing global warming. Theyve looked at the natural cycles and events that are known to influence climate. But the amount and pattern of warming thats been measured cant be explained by these factors alone. The only way to explain the pattern is to include the effect of greenhouse gases emitted by humans. There are many natural causes of global warming. But they do not warm much the planet. The most serious type of warm is anthropogenic which is created by humans. One of the first things scientists learned is that there are several greenhouse gases responsible for warming and humans emit them in a variety of ways. The causes of global warming are given below -? Greenhouse Gases : Sunlight that reaches Earth warms both the atmosphere and the surface. Earths surface and atmospheric system then irradiate heat as infrared radiation. Certain gases in Earths atmosphere absorb and re-emit this radiation. Some of it returns to the Earth ;s surface, making Earth warmer than it otherwise would be. In trapping heat, the gases act a little like the panes of glass in a greenhouse (although the process by which the heat is trapped is not the same as in a greenhouse), accordingly, the effect is called the greenhouse effect, and the gases which include Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (CIFS) are called greenhouse gases. Extra Carbon Dioxide Release : Human are releasing Carbon dioxide in the environment by burning fossil fuels, burning trees, driving cars and from the industry. This excessive carbon dioxide is not absorbed by the environment. This makes our planet warmer and the result is global warming. CLC Methane Gas from animals, agriculture, Arctic Sea beds: Methane is another extremely potent greenhouse gas, r anking right behind CO. When organic matter is broken down by bacteria under oxygen-starved conditions (anaerobic decomposition) as in rice paddies, methane is produced. The process also takes place in the intestines of herbivorous animals and with the increase in the amount of concentrated livestock production, the levels of methane released into the atmosphere is increasing. Another source of methane is methane celebrate, a compound containing large amounts of methane trapped in the crystal structure of ice. As methane escapes from the Arctic sea beds, the rate of global warming will increase significantly. 12 0 Solar Variation : Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes. The effect Of changes in solar forcing in recent decades is uncertain but small. Some studies showing a slight cooling effect while others studies suggest a slight warming effect. C] Nitrogen Oxides from Farming : Primary component of the green revolution has been the development of iatrogenic fertilizers that dramatically accelerate the growth and productivity of plants in the field. Plants fix or capture, nitrogen on their own as well but green revolution technologies have become so popular that humans are now adding more nitrogen to the earth than all of the plants in the world combined. Nitrogen oxides have 300 times more heat-trapping capacity per unit of volume than does carbon dioxide and we release them every time we apply fertilizer to soil. A recent United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization study found that modern farming is contributing more to global arming than all of the transportation sector combined. This is due partly to the fuel burned in modern farming, but more significantly, to the release of methane and nitrogen oxides. C] Chlorofluorocarbon (CUFF) Gas : Chlorofluorocarbons (CUFF), is used in refrigeration, also powerful greenhouse gas. These gas occur in lower concentrations in the atmosphere, but because they are so much more potent than carbon dioxide, in some cases hundreds of times more potent per unit of volume, they contribute to global warming as well. CLC Deforestation Deforestation increases the severity of global arming as well. Carbon dioxide is released from the human conversion of forests and grasslands into farmland and cities. All living plants store carbon. When those plants die and decay, carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. As forests and grasslands are cleared for human use, enormous amounts of stored carbon enter the atmosphere. Burning Gasoline for transportation : Our modern car culture and appetite for globally sourced goods is responsible for about 33% of emissions in the U. S. With our population growing at an alarming rate, the demand for more cars and nonuser goods means that we are increasing the use of fossil fuels for transportation and manufacturing.

DVT and treatment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

DVT and treatment - Essay Example Other risk factors for DVT include postoperative period, pregnancy, puerperium, local trauma and stasis, smoking, obesity, lupus anticoagulant, post-stroke or neurological trauma, type-A blood group, malignancy, deficiencies of protein C, protein S or antithrombin III, impaired fibrinolysis as in post operative patients, those on estrogens, acute myocardial infection and congestive heart failure, hyperlipidemia, increasing age, inflammatory bowel disease and homocystinuria. Studies have shown that patients receiving general anesthesia have a 500% increased risk of DVT compared with patients receiving epidural anesthesia for the same surgical procedure (Craig 2005). Vascular endothelial injury, even though minimal, exposes amorphous electron-dense substance which stimulates platelet adhesion and aggregation. The release of amorphous electron-dense substance is enhanced by activity of the intrinsic coagulation cascade. Platelet adhesion and aggregation causes formation of hemostatic plug after which coagulation pathways are activated and thrombin is generated. Fibrin cross-linking builds a true thrombus out of what was initially a loose aggregation of blood elements (Craig, 2005). Normally, these series of events are opposed. In conditions as discussed above, these events are unopposed resulting in propagation of thrombus throughout the venous system. This is further accentuated by presence of reduced blood flow wherein the activated coagulation factors will accumulate. In many cases DVT may remain asymptomatic. The classic signs and symptoms of DVT are pain, tenderness, and unilateral leg swelling, due to obstruction to venous drainage. Other signs include warmth, erythema, a palpable cord, pain upon passive dorsiflexion of the foot, and spontaneous maintenance of the relaxed foot in abnormal plantar flexion (Craig 2005). Cellulitis can occur and in severe cases, pulmonary embolism can

What evidence is there that the Iliad was composed before the art of Research Paper

What evidence is there that the Iliad was composed before the art of writing was applied to the composition of poetry - Research Paper Example The two sets of evidence are considered together with the intention of finding a definitive answer to this question. In the introduction to the text of the poem in English G.S. Kirk points out that the Greeks started to use writing around 725 B.C. which was relatively late compared to their neighbours, the Mesopotamians who had used their cuneiform script for some thousand years already. (Kirk, 2008, p. ix). Using items like figure scenes and vases, quotations in other poets, and mention of the Iliad and Odyssey in other surviving writings, Kirk notes that historians have dated the composition of The Iliad been around this time, or possibly as late as 680 B.C,. Archaeological evidence and historic individuals mentioned in the text would suggest that the battles between the Greeks and the Trojans which are described in the poem took place another 600 years before the time of Homer, around 1200 B.C. This means that a very long time had passed before the material came to be worked on by Homer. It is theoretically possible that even older oral versions existed on which Homer perhaps based his work. There is no evidence of this, however, and so older sources have to remain a speculation. It is clear that in the time of Homer, Greek civilization was not heavily dependent on writing. There are some inscriptions from this period but they are very brief. The technical limitations of the early Greek script made it unlikely that Homer could have made much use of it as a writing aid for such a long poem, according to Kirk. Moreover, Kirk points out that the audience for the poem were certainly not readers: â€Å" He (= Homer) composed for people who were essentially non-literate, who listened to poetry as their ancestors had†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kirk, 2008, p. x) This dating evidence proves that there was plenty of poetry existing in written form before Homer came along. The Epic of Gilgamesh, for example, was written in Sumerian script, and dates from around 2000 B.C., well be fore the Trojan wars. The Iliad was composed in Greek many centuries after this, and so in an absolute sense it is not true to say that it was composed before anyone had used writing for poetry. In a local and Greek sense, however, this is a possibility worth investigation, because the Greeks may indeed have composed, performed, heard,and preserved The Iliad in only oral form. Scholars have carefully studied the surviving text of The Iliad to try and work out if there are clues to its origin in the way it is written. The presence of many formulaic phrases which are repeated again and again is explained as a feature of oral literature: the hexameter form requires that a certain rhythm be maintained, and so these ready-made little phrases are called upon to fill spaces in the poetic line in a predictable way. An example of this is the way the named characters in the epic have a little descriptive phrase attached to them such as â€Å"Agamemnon, Atreus’ son† (Book 1, p. 1 ) which is varied as â€Å"The son of Atreus,/ ruler of the great plain, Agamemnon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Book 1, p. 3) or â€Å"†¦ son of Atreus, tamer of horses (Book 2, p. 18). These epithets add interest to the story because the heroes are mentioned often, and it could become even more repetitive if the simple names were used without these variations. Finnegan explains the so-called â€Å"Homeric epithet† as a structural device: â€Å"The poet had at his disposal this series of traditional patterns built up over